The effect of concentration of sugar on osmotic activity

The effect of concentration of sugar on osmotic activity Scientific Theory: Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules through a semi- permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until a state of equilibrium is reached. Equilibrium is reached once enough water has moved to balance the solute concentration on both sides of the membrane. Semi-permeable membranes let small molecules such as water and oxygen to travel through it but large molecules such as proteins are prevented from going through it as it is only partially permeable. Osmosis occurs across a partially permeable membrane whenever there is a difference between the water concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. When this happens to the cells they will either become turgid if water flows into them, or flaccid if water flows out of them. In this diagram the membrane separates pure water from a solution of sucrose and water. The membrane is semi permeable, water molecules can cross it but the sucrose molecules are too large. The water solution will move from a lower concentration of solutes to one with a higher concentration of solutes. A solution with pure solutes has more molecules that are free to move about and follow their concentration gradient across the membrane; as a result there will be net movement of water across this membrane from left to right (shown by the yellow arrows on diagram above). Sugar solution has a low water potential (not many water molecules).The water potential in the solution would be lower than that in the potato cell so the net movement of water will move out of the potato through its membrane into the sugar solution and so the potatos mass will decrease. The opposite happens in water where the water potential is much higher than in the potato (almost 0). Here the net movement of water will move into the potato in order to reaching equilibrium and so the weight of the potato increases. AIM: To investigate the effect of varying concentration of a certain sugar solution on the amount of osmotic activity between the solution and two vegetables (potato and sweet potato) of the same mass. To investigate if the additional glucose in sweet potato has an effect on its mass compared to the normal potato. Preliminary work: Before I start to carry out an experiment to investigate my aim, I am going to conduct a simple experiment to verify my knowledge of osmosis. Doing this experiment will also help me to improve my main experiment. Plan: For my preliminary experiment I will be using three different solutions: sugar solution, pure water, a solution consisting of 50% water and 50% sugar solution. I will also be using potato chips which are all equal in mass. A cork borer will be used to cut out 3 potato cylinders, the mass of the potato cylinders will be Measured to make sure that they are equal in weight. Then the mass of each of the potato chip will be recorded. Next 3 measuring tubes will be placed on a test tube rack. Using a measuring cylinder tube 20ml of water, sugar solution and the solution consisting of 50% water and 50% sugar solution will be measured out and put into three different test tubes. In order to avoid any mix ups each test tube will be clearly labelled. One potato chip will be placed in each solution and left for half an hour. Afterwards the potatoes will be taken out of the solutions and their masses will be measured and recorded. Results: Starting mass (g) Mass after (g) Difference (g) Percent difference 100% Water 0.48 0.55 0.07 + 6% 50% Water and 50% sugar 0.46 0.43 +0.03 -14% 100 % Sugar 0.47 0.36 +0.11 -23% Diagram: Analysis: From the results that I have obtained, I can see a negative correlation between the concentration of the sugar in the solution and the mass of the potato chip at the end of the experiment. While the solution containing 100% sugar decreased in mass by 0.11g and the solution containing 50% sugar decreased in mass by 0.03g, the solution that contained 0% sugar increased in mass by 0.07g. This shows that in the two solutions containing sugar the mass decreased because water molecules moved out of the potato chips into the solution. The opposite happened with the water solution; water moved from the solution into the potato chip. Overall I was please with the results as they agreed with what I have already learned about osmosis. The results that I got also showed trends that could later be expanded in my main e experiment. Changes: Over all my preliminary experiment was a success and the results I obtained were precise and useful. However for my main experiment I am going to make some improvements so that I can get the best possible results. Firstly I am going to experiment with sweet potato chips as well as potato chips because I would like to investigate if the additional glucose in the sweet potato has an effect on its mass. In addition I am going to be using a wider selection of sugar concentrations in order to collect a larger quantity of accurate results. I am going to use water and 4 other concentrations. This will enable me to write a conclusion that is more accurate. In my preliminary experiment I only did the experiment once. I am going to repeat my main experiment three times, by doing so I will gain more confidence in my results as they will be more reliable. By repeating the experiment I will be able to identify any anomalies. Further more in my preliminary experiment I could not take the potato ch ips out of the solutions at the same time. I also encountered this problem when putting the potato chips into the solutions. For my main experiment I am going to overcome this problem by asking a few of my associates to help me put the potato chips into the solution and take them out at the same time. This will make my results more accurate and fair. Main Experiment Prediction: I predict that for the potato chip in water the mass will increase because water has a higher water potential than the potato chip so water molecules will move from the water into the potato chip, causing it to increase in weight. The opposite happens with sugar solution because sugar solution has low water potential so water molecules will move out of the potato chip into the sugar solution. Thus I predict that as the concentration of sugar in the solution increases the mass of the potato cylinders will decrease. I would expect sweet potatoes to have a lower water potential (not many water molecule) than normal potatoes, because they are sweet and therefore must have contain sugar. Hence for the sweet potato chips I predict that at first the mass of the sweet potato will increase but, as the concentration of sugar in the solution increases past the isotonic point the mass of the potato cylinders will decrease. I predict that the graphs for the both the vegetables will be similar.My prediction can be demonstrated in the following graphs: Sweet Potato Potato Safety: While I carry out this experiment, it is important to consider safety. Lack of safety in science labs can not only endanger me and my fellow class mates but can also produce poor and useless results. Following safety procedures protects the lab, its people and the environment. Safe labs also help produce effective results. These are the safety measures I took: All bags were kept well away from the area of work so that no pathways were being obstructed and the risk of someone tripping over was reduced. All stools were tucked in under the tables in order to avoid a passer-by tripping over. Both this point and the one above can prove to be fatal if the victim is holding any dangerous equipment e.g. Scalpel, acid etc. It can also cause spills. Loose hair was tied up; sleeves rolled up and head scarfs tucked away. Hair and clothing can get in the way while working. It is also dangerous and can cause spills, ruin experiments and even potentially harm me or others around me. No earphones, scarves or jewellery was worn as these can catch on equipment and cause spill or damages. Safely glasses were worn at all times to ensure our eyes were protected from and potential danger. It was made sure that the work area was clear of any unnecessary items such as reading books and folders as these can get in the way and cause accidents. Working quietly and carefully. Talking unnecessarily can be a distraction to me and others around me, when distracted it is easier to make mistakes that can not only be dangerous but can also affect my results. Chipped and cracked glass wear was not used as this could break more easily if handled a lot and create a mess. It can also cause injuries. Extreme care was taken when using equipment made of glass e.g. test tubes. Eating and drinking in the labs is forbidden as the food may come into contact with some harmful substance. This could be unsafe for the consumer. When using knifes a non-slip surface was used to cut on so that no one was injured. After finishing the experiments, I washed my hands because my hands could be contaminated with chemicals, even if they were not used by me. All equipment was safely stored away after use as leaving unwanted equipment around can cause accidents and get in the way. Accuracy and Reliability There are the tasks, which I undertook to ensure reliable and precise results were produced. To eliminate all possibilities of faulty errors; I repeated my experiment three times. In addition, I had no less than 5 different concentrations, so I obtained adequate results. In order to increase the reliability of the results, I found more precise values of mass by using an Electronic balance. When measuring the potato and sweet potato cylinders, I waited for at least 10 seconds to ensure that the figure displayed on the digital scale was not flicking. If any readings seemed anomalous, I took an additional reading just to be sure. I collaboratively, with the help of 3 other members, measured the mass of the potato and sweet potato cylinders individually. This gave more reliable results as the masses of all the potato cylinders were measured about the same time. I used pieces from the same potato and sweet potato for each of the 5 pieces in each test. I used exactly the same method for each test to make the comparison much more reliable. Equipment Goggles: These were worn for safety reasons to avoid anything from coming into contact with the eyes. Electronic balance: I used this apparatus to measure the mass of the potato and sweet potato cylinders before and after they were put in their molar solutions. Electronic balances are also more accurate that normal balances. Test tubes: These were used to hold the molar solution and the potato/ sweet potato cylinder for each molar solution for every experiment and test. Healthy potatoes: This was one of two main vegetables used for the experiment. Healthy sweet potatoes: This is the second vegetable that was used for the experiment. This vegetable was mainly used so that I could investigate if the additional glucose in sweet potato has an effect on its mass compared to the normal potato. Chopping board: This was used to cut the potato cylinders on. Using this not only kept the lad neat and tidy but also prevented injuries as it is a non-slip surface. Knife: This was used to cut the potato cylinders if the mass was too much. Timer/stop watch: This was used to time the experiment. It is also more accurate than using a clock. Paper towels: These were used to pat the potatoes dry before being measured at the end of the experiment. If the potatoes were measured without being dried first then the additional liquid on the potato can cause it to increase the mass. Test tube rack: This was used to hold the test tubes. Sugar solutions (1 molar and 2 molar): These solutions were very significant for the experiment, as they, with the potato cylinders, caused osmosis to occur. Water: Used to make certain concentrations of sugar solution. Cork borer: To cut the same shape potato pieces. Measuring cylinder: To measure out certain amounts of water and sugar solution. Labels: -To labels the test tubes so it is easier to identify the contents inside each test tube. Variables: In this investigation I had three different variables: The independent variable This is a factor that can be changed. The dependant variable What you measure and what is affected in the experiment. Fixed variable- The factors you keep the same. The independent variables: I changed the concentration of the sugar solution. I used; water, 0.5 molar sugar solution ,1 molar sugar solution, 1.5 molar sugar solution and finally 2 molar sugar solution. I also changed the types of potato used (sweet potato and normal potato) The dependant variables: I measured the mass of the sweet potatoes and potatoes before placing in the solutions and after. This is something that is affected during the course of the experiment. Fixed variable: All the potatoes and sweet potatoes I used were that same in mass (0.64g). The volume of each solution in each test tube was also the same (20ml). In addition I kept the potato and sweet potatoes in the solutions for the same length of time (40 minutes) Fair test: It is only by carrying out a fair test that I can be sure that it is what I have changed (independent variable) that is affecting what I measured (dependent variable). In order to get accurate results I needed to ensure that my test was fair. Therefore in this experiment I controlled: The volume of solution in each beaker The mass of the potatoes and sweet potatoes at the start of the experiment The length of time the potatoes and sweet potatoes were left in the solution. I ensured that the potato and sweet potato cylinders were put in the solutions and taken out of the solutions at the same time. Method: Firstly get 2 test tube racks and place 5 test tubes on each rack label one test tube rack sweet potato and label the other rack potato Get some sticky labels and label each test tube with the solution it is going to contain (water, 0.5 molar, 1 molar, 1.5 molar, 2 molar,). Do this for the test tubes on both racks. Using the measuring cylinder measure out 20ml of 1 molar sugar and pour into the test tube labelled 1 molar. Then measure out 20 ml of 2 molar sugar solution and pour in to the test tube marked 2 molar. After measure out 20 ml of water and pour in to the test tube marked water Next make the different concentrations of sugar solution. (1 molar and 2 molar are already provided). -To make 0.5 molar: use the measuring cylinder to measure out 5 ml of 1 molar sugar solution and 15ml of water. Mix these together and pour into the test tube labelled 0.5 molar. To make 1.5 molar: use the measuring cylinder to measure out 15 ml of 1 molar sugar solution and 5ml of water. Mix these together and pour into the test tube labelled 1.5 molar. (Do the above 5 points for all the test tubes on both racks. By the end of point 6 you should have two test tube racks one labelled potato and the other labelled sweet potato, each rack must hold 5 test tubes, each test tube must be labelled with the solution that it holds e.g. water, 1 molarà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦etc.) Afterwards, get a healthy potato; make sure the skin is peeled. Using the cork borer cut out 5 potato cylinders. Using the electronic balance, weigh all the potato cylinders. They should all weigh around 0.64g. If they dont then alter them accordingly using a chopping bored and knife and place to a side. Remember to record the masses. Subsequently, get a healthy sweet potato. Once again make sure the skin has been peeled. Using the cork borer cut out 5 potato cylinders. Using the electronic balance, weigh all the sweet potato cylinders. They should all weigh around 0.64g. If they dont then alter them accordingly using a knife and a chopping bored. Remember to record the masses. Then both the sweet potato and normal potato must be put in to the solutions, each test tube must contain either 1 potato cylinder or 1 sweet potato cylinder. Make sure all the cylinders of potatoes and sweet potatoes are dropped into the solutions at the same time (ask help from classmates if needed). The timer should also be started now. (Leave the solutions in this state for 4o min) After 40 min, the potatoes and sweet potatoes must be removed from their solutions. Again, they should all be taken out at the same time (again ask for help if needed). Make sure the potato cylinders do not get mixed up; ensure that you know which cylinder came from which solution. Dry each cylinder and measure its mass one by one. Ensure that the masses are recorded once again. (All the above was repeated 2 more times to increase the reliability in my results) Diagram: Observations: During the experiment I noticed that some of the potato and sweet potato cylinders in higher concentrations of sugar started to float. In the 1.5 and 2 molar sugar solutions the potato has higher water potential that the sugar solution so water molecules from the potato cells would have moved into the sugar solution, this made the potato cylinders float to the top of the solution rather than stay at the bottom of the beaker because it became lighter. This happened after approximately 10 -15 minutes. After approximately 20 minutes the potato cell in 1 molar sugar solution started to float as well. This is because as the potato cells are losing water molecules, they gradually become lighter. The potato in water did not float, nor were there any visible changes. All the above applies to both the sweet potato and normal potato. A difference I noticed between the two types of potato was that while the potato in the 0.5 molar solution floated a slightly, the sweet potato in the 0.5 molar solution did not float at all, it remained still, similar to the potato cylinders in water. I also noticed that the potato cylinders floated higher than the sweet potato cylinders. Calculations: Below are the calculations I did to work our various aspect of the results: Percentage change in mass = Change in mass x 100 Original mass Averages = All three masses in one category added The number of different masses Change in mass = New Mass Original Mass Analysis: Both the graphs show negative correlation between the concentration of the sugar in the solution and the mass of the potato chip at the end of the experiment. It is clear from the graphs that osmosis has taken place. Potato: For the potato cylinder put in water (0% sugar) the potatoes mass has increased 21.87% form 0.64 grams to 0.73 grams, this shows that because water has a higher water potential than the potato cylinder, water molecules have moved from the water into the potato causing its weight to increase. When this happens the cell becomes turgid (hard and swollen).For the potatoes in all the other solutions (1 molar, 0.5 molar, 1.5 molar and 2 molar) the mass of the potatoes decreased. This shows that water molecules have moved out of the potato cell into the sugar solutions. When a cell loses water in such a way the cell become flaccid, which is the opposite of turgid. Sweet potato: For the sweet potato cylinder that was placed in water the mass increased as expected. This happened because water moved from the solution into the sweet potato. For all the other molarities, except the sweet potato placed in 0.5 molar solution, the changes were the same as for the potato. For the sweet potato placed in 0.5 molar solution the mass increased from 0.64 grams to 0.65 grams. There was a 0.01 gram increase in the mass of the sweet potato by the end of the experiment. This suggests that my prediction was correct: I expected sweet potatoes to have a lower water potential than normal potatoes because they are sweet and therefore must have contain sugar. Hence for the sweet potato chips I predicted that at first the mass of the sweet potato will increase but, as the concentration of sugar in the solution increases past the isotonic point the mass of the potato cylinders will decrease. There was a 0.01 gram increase in the mass of the sweet potato by the end of the experiment. 0.01g is extremely close to 0g. On the graph, if you look at this point, it is clear that the range bar is in between 1.56% and 0%. If there had been a 0% chang e in mass, it would mean that a state of equilibrium had been reached. This is a point where the concentration of water inside the sweet potato cell is the same as the concentration of water in the solution which the sweet potato is in. my results imply that the reason the mass of the sweet potato in the 0.5 molar sugar solution increased in because the water potential of the sweet potato was slightly lower than that of the water. As a result water molecules moved in to the sweet potato cell. The sweet potato in 1.5 molar sugar solution decreased weight because the concentration of sugar in the solution had increased passed the isotonic point (equilibrium). Conclusion: My graphs show that osmosis has taken place. There was a negative correlation between the concentration of sugar in the solution and the mass of the potato or sweet potato cell at the end of the experiment. Over all the results that I obtained have answered my aim; varying the concentration of the sugar does have an affect on the mass of the vegetable and the additional sugar in sweet potato does have an effect on its mass when compared with normal potatoes. With the results I have obtained I can conclude that the higher the concentration of sugar in the solution, the more mass the potato looses. The graph also shows that the opposite happened when the concentration of water in the solution is higher. So I can conclude this by saying: the higher that concentration of water in the solution the more mass the potato gains. This applies for both the potato and sweet potato. However because of the additional sugar in the sweet potato, the mass of the sweet potato will only decrease after the concentration of sugar in the solution increases past the isotonic point (point of equilibrium). To make full sense of the conclusion, a recap on osmosis and the affect on cells are required. When there is a high concentration of water in the solution and a plant cell with low concentration of water into water, the water would move into the plant cell by osmosis. Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules through a semi- permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until a state of equilibrium is reached. Equilibrium is reached once enough water has moved to balance the solute concentration on both sides of the membrane. Osmosis occurs across a partially permeable membrane whenever there is a difference between the water concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. When this happens to the cells they will either become turgid if water flows into them, or flaccid if water flows out of them. The results that I have obtained in this experiment support the prediction that I made using scientific theory and my preliminary experiment. Evaluation: Overall I was please with the results that I gained as they agreed with what I have already learned about osmosis. I believe I have gained reliable results, which supports the scientific theory. After making changes to my main experiment from the preliminary experiment I faced no difficulties. The equipment that I used was suitable, I managed to collect adequate data and the investigation that I organised was effective, as can be seen from my results. I was able to get enough results to come to a strong and explanative conclusion. I believe that my results were reasonably accurate as I did the experiment 3 times and found that the repeated results were mostly very close together. With these results I was able to construct two, very accurate and informative graphs. My results were free from any major anomalies that did not fit the regular pattern. However there were one or two very minor anomalies that could have been caused by the following: Some limitations or experimental errors could have occurred during the investigation, which I did not realise and could have led to some miscalculations in my results. The main limitation could have been the change in temperature of the room during the experiment. High temperatures could have altered the rate at which osmosis takes place. Another potential problem in the investigation may be tampering, as the investigation was carried out in a lab which is in constant use. This could have resulted in students playing with the apparatus, which could have affected the out come of my results. Also when drying the potato chips after the allotted time it was inevitable that they would have excess water on them, and so we dabbed them with paper towels to remove it. However, in doing this we could have removed water that was not excess, and altered our results. To make my investigation more reliable and accurate I could make some improvements. Firstly I could use a wider and more precise rage of sugar concentrations. If I did this I would have a wider range of results to work with so it would be more accurate and I would be able to come to a more secure conclusion. Another improvement I would make if repeating the experiment is to dry all the potato cylinders the same. I used paper towels to dry the potato cylinders, which caused variation between the potatoes as sum where dried more thorough and for longer than others which affects their mass, and those potato cylinders that have not been dried as much as others will have more excess water and therefore a greater mass. In the future I would develop a method to dry the potatoes in a way that is fair. Further investigations may be to investigate using lengths or shapes of potatoes, to see affect of osmosis upon them. I could do a comparative study, where I see the effects of osmosis on potatoes which have been altered to do specific breeding, e.g. grow in a hot climate, etc. I could do a study into surface area or the effects of temperature upon osmosis, to identify the best temperature in which osmosis occurs. I could also investigate the affects of osmosis on different vegetables such as aubergine, turnip, carrots.

Psychology of Negotiation Essay

Abstract Every day we may negotiate with people many times without being aware of it. The social reality is actually a big negotiating table, and we are playing a variety of negotiators in different situations. In the community, you might have conflict with others, and in order to solve these conflicts, you need to negotiate. Negotiation, to some extent, is a psychological game. So if we have the knowledge of it, we can make a good deal. This paper talked about the significance of studying psychological of negotiation, people’s different needs, motives, and temperaments in negotiation which could help negotiators to make successful negotiations with knowing them. Also, how to deal with the emotion problems people may have during negotiations. Negotiation is an indispensable part of our daily life, because it happens in our lives almost every day. Once we get rid of negotiation, we’re going to lose many of our rights, and right then it’s hard to express our true thoughts, and even if there are conflicts of interests, we can not protect our own benefits. In essence, the direct reason that lead to negotiation is the demands of negotiating parties, or the demand of the organization that one represents, can not be ignored when the other party meet their demand. Therefore, the main purpose of two parties participating in a negotiation, are not only to pursue their own needs, but also to find an acceptable solution for both parties through the exchanging of views and consulting. Former U.S. President John F. Kennedy had a famous saying in his inaugural speech, â€Å"let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate.† On some level, negotiation is a mental game. We can learn from psychology that people’s needs, motives and behavior are closely related. What in a person’s mind affect his behavior, so psychology of business negotiation has important impact on the behavior in negotiation. Using psychological knowledge in negotiations will help people win the game. Psychology of business negotiation refers to various mental activities of negotiators in negotiations. It is a subjective reflection of negotiators towards variety of situations, conditions and other objective facts in negotiation. For example, when negotiator first meets the opponent in negotiation, and if the opponent is polite, sincere, and easy to communicate, the negotiator will has a good impression toward the other, and  he will be more confident and hopeful to make the deal. Being familiar with psychology in negotiation, will help negotiators handle a variety of complex negotiation problem flexibly and efficiently. I t is also significant for negotiators to develop excellent psychological quality, maintain a good attitude, judge the opponent’s psychological states and motives correctly, and predict and guide opponent’s behavior. The negotiator’s self-confidence in making negotiation successful, the sincerity towards negotiation, the management and control of emotion in negotiation, and the prevention and handling with obstacles are indispensable psychological qualities that guarantee successful negotiation. Therefore, negotiator should develop and improve their own excellent psychological qualities, and abandon the bad psychological behavior. The secret of negotiation is to grasp each other’s needs. Demand is the core of the negotiation. Needs and meeting the needs is the common basis for negotiation. For example, I have my own needs and the ability to satisfy others, and others have their own needs and the abilities to satisfy my needs. Therefore, we can satisfy each other, and this becomes the common basis of negotiation. Demand is a subjective state when one lacks something, which is a reflection of the needs of the people of a certain objective things, and that the objective needs of nature and society reflected in the brain. The demands in negotiation have several types: 1. Physiological needs: the original, basic, necessary needs for human survival, such as breathing, eating, drinking, sleeping, etc. No matter how tight, intense the negotiation is, the personnel participating in the negotiation must ensure to meet the physiological needs. The better we set up the dining, resting and entertainment in the negotiation, the higher the efficiency of negotiation is going to be. On the contrary, if people’s physiological needs can be satisfied, the negotiation can be directly affected. 2. Security needs: mainly refers to a person’s sense of security, stability and order. Business negotiators have strong security needs. To consider the credit security, the negotiators usually like to deal with old customers, and they feel scruples in dealing with new customers. In business negotiations, negotiators are generally concerned about the risks in transactions. For negotiators that are more sensitive, they would worry the condition of the main qualif ications, property, funds and reputation of the opponents. Sometimes they prefer to give up the attractive large  transactions, to select more solid small transactions or even give up the transaction. 3. Social needs: mainly represent the needs to seek and improve interpersonal relationship. Business negotiators have social needs. Negotiations are typical social activities. In a society that economy and culture are well-developed, people’s activities show their social needs. Social needs is a delicate and subtle needs, and it is related to one’s personality, psychological characteristics, experiences, cultural upbringing, habits, and religious beliefs. 4. Esteem needs: including being respected and self-esteem. To embody it is to hope one himself or herself having ability and achievements, be qualified for a job, be eager to get the appreciation of others, fame and glory. This kind of psychological needs showing in negotiation is that some people like to show their identity and authority, or others like to listen to people’s compliments and so on. The person who has a strong esteem needs might has aggressive and hostile behavior, or does not like to cooperate because of the working of psychological defense when his or her does not feel to be respected or the pride was hurt, and this will bring a big obstacle to negotiation. U.S. Oil Consortium would like to buy natural gas in Mexico with low price, so they had a negotiation about the price. The U.S. energy secretary believed that there was no potential buyer and Mexico would lower the price eventually since it was just a negotiation about money. However, the Mexicans needs w ere not only just selling natural gas at a good price, but also being respected and equal. And the Americans’ behavior looked like a bully for Mexicans, so the Mexico government decided not to burn the natural gas to the ground instead of selling to the U.S.. Therefore, any chance of making an agreement in politics is impossible. The case shows us that people may withdraw from the negotiation or give up the original plan of conducting transactions in order to safeguard the prestige and dignity. 5. Self-actualization needs: Self-actualization is to make one’s potential getting realistic. When you make the efforts to let others give you the special privilege, your satisfaction may reach a peak, and this is the representation of self-actualization. In actual negotiations, a strategy that people always use is to give the lowest offer, which is using this psychological phenomenon. â€Å"This is our best price†, is a typical example of using the psychology of pursuing self-actualization. In many circumstances,  negotiators are not on behalf of themselves, but on behalf of the organization to participate the negotiations. While they are trying to meet the individual needs, they also have to consider about the needs of the group or the organization. As a negotiator representing an organization, from the view of ethics, the needs of the organization should be put in the first place. One should try to satisfy the needs of group or organization through hard work. Where there is a need, there is a motive. Motive is the internal power to promote people to meet the needs. In other words, it is an internal driving force to promote people to do activities. The motive of negotiation is the driver to promote negotiators to make a negotiation to meet their needs. â€Å"Social motives determine negotiators’ preferences for resource allocation, that is, wheth er negotiators’ focus on maximizing collective or personal outcomes.† (Olekalns, M. & Smith, P.L., Jan, 2012) There are four-type motives of negotiation. 1. Economy-type motive: This kind of motive refers to that the negotiators are very sensitive to the economic factors such as transaction price and they take economic interests seriously. The negotiating behavior is mainly driven by economic interests. 2. Impulse-type motive: This means that the negotiators are impulsive in decision-making in negotiations, and their negotiating behaviors are induced by their emotions like irritation. 3. Misgiving-type motive: This means that the negotiators’ behavior is affected by suspicions and worries to cause the discreet negotiating behavior. 4. Adventurous-type motive: This means the negotiators like to take risks to pursue a more perfect outcome. Their negotiating behaviors are triggered by risks. When people have some kinds of needs but not be satisfied, they will have a nervous state of mind, and when they encounter the goal that can meet their needs, the nervous state of mind will turn into motives, to promote people engage in certain activities and achieve the goal. As a negotiator, one should have the insight to know the other party’s needs and motives, and adjust the negotiating strategy in order to have the control of negotiation. In business negotiation, the negotiators’ characteristics and personalities also have important impact on their negotiating behavior. â€Å"Personality clashes created via ‘posturing’ and ‘saving face’ can block progress in  negotiations.† (Hoffman, E., Dec, 2012) Personality affects the style, efficiency and effectiveness of negotiation. 2500 years ago, the ancient reek physician Hippocrates believed that the human body was filled with four basic substances, called humors. The four humors were black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) The four humors form the four types of temperament. The negotiating personality of each temperament is power-type, convince-type, execute-type and misgiving-type. 1. Power-type: Power-type negotiator is a competitive opponent in negotiation. If you obey him, he will â€Å"eat you up†, and if you resist him, the negotiation will come to a dead end or be terminated. The best way to deal with this kind of people is to overcome hardness with softness. When they are furious or try to force one to make a deal, do not rush to refute or give it back, one should try his or her best to avoid direct conflict face to face, and be patient to listen. When the conflict is inevitable, one shall not surrender. One should use the facts to prove they were wrong, and fight back calmly. When you speak for the truth, they will be cool and may have respect and admire for you. It’s good to satisfy their self-esteem, stimulate challenge, make obstacles and induce risks to make the negotiation succeed. 2. Convince-type: The most common negotiators are convince-type in negotiation. They are shrewd, cautious, affable in appearance, and full of charm. They are good at discover and cater the opponents’ interest, and convince people gradually. Under many circumstances, even if they do not agree with other parties’ proposals, they would not refuse directly, and they always try to convince the other parties or illustrate their reason why they do not accept. The best way to deal with this kind of people is to persuade them repeatedly, because they like to hear from others and love to take advices. As long as your products fit their needs, and the price is reasonable, they will take it eventually. In addition, they are concerned about relationships, and they do not like making conflict, so repeated persuasion will be very effective. It’ll be good to make small conflicts and prepare some compliments and many questions in details to make the deal quick in negotiation. â€Å"It’s a fact of life that dealing with an intelligent well-balanced person will be the toughest negotiation, but it also offers the prospect of creating a genuine â€Å"win-win† agreement in the shortest possible time.† (Palmer, A., 2006) 3. Execute-type: The negotiators have  this kind of temperament can not work independently in negotiations. They like to play by the rules and implement with the plan in advance toward superiors’ orders and instructions. They usually do not have their own ideas and insights, and they lack of the ability to think and imagine. They often have poor decision-making and adapting ability. Trying to keep the status quo as it is is their greatest wish. The most effective way to deal with this kind of people is to be calm, patient and try to use more detailed information and precedents. They like safe and orderly negotiation. As far as possible to negotiate as planed when they are your opponents. They are concerned about the details, so try to show more information to support your idea and gain their trust. It’s good to divide negotiation to some periods with specific goals, and try to speed up the process of negotiation. 4. Misgiving-type: This kind of opponents have strong security needs and risk awareness. They always have scruples when dealing with new customers. They are worried about having disadvantage and being cheated, so they are anxious for gains and losses, sensitive, suspicious, defensive, close-minded and critical. They like to spy on their opponents’ minds, so it is advised to take a moderate negotiation with them. The effective way to deal with them is to provide more witnesses, evidences and other proofs. This kind of opponents is very suspicious. Whatever you say, they want to confirm to be assured. If you fool them with one answer, it seems to be impossible to gain their trust again. You have to be honest and passionate with these people. It is good to be cautious with your behavior, give them time to consider, make small conflict when they are doubted with the apparent facts. Therefore, when we observe and understand the opponents’ types, we can accept their shortcomings and deficiencies calmly, and take effective measures according to their psychological characteristics to control the direction of negotiations. Although we know the types of people we are going to deal with in negotiations, everyone has emotions that may blow off the negotiations. Business negotiations are complex and variable, and both parties’ emotions may fluctuate with the process of negotiation. Being too emotional is not good for negotiation. â€Å"The most successful negotiators are able to rise above the emotional aspects separating the people from the tasks.† (The Psychology of Negotiation) We have to make effective regulations on emotions of each party, we can make the negotiations proceed  in the way we expected. Negotiators should have self-control of their emotions. Whether the negotiations are going well or bad for their own party, they should be ratio nal rather than being manipulated by the opponents. â€Å"Mueller and Curhan found that negotiators with emotionally intelligent opponents were more satisfied with the negotiation outcome, liked their partners better, and were more willing to engage in future negotiations with the same partner than those negotiators with opponents who did not understand emotion as well.† (Gelafand, M.J., Fulmer, A. & Severance, L.) Sometimes people can use good-cop, bad-cop strategy to control the opponents in order to make the deal. U.S. tycoons Howard Hughes once wanted to buy a fleet of aircraft. Because he wanted to purchase a huge amount, it was a very good deal for the manufacturers. But Hughes stated that he wanted to write down his specific requirements on the agreement which were 34 clauses totally, and the manufacturer had to fulfill 11 clauses of the requirements. Hughes’s attitude in the negotiation is domineering, and hard-lined. He refused to consider about others, which aroused the anger of the manufacturer. At last, the m anufacturer announced that they would not have any negotiation with him. So later, Hughes sent his private representative to come forward to negotiate, and finally they made the deal with fulfilling 30 clauses of the requirements. But how did the representative win the negotiation? The answer is simple. Every time they had a conflict, the representative would ask, â€Å"Who do you prefer to settle this problem with, me or Howard Hughes?† So they eventually made it work by playing â€Å"good-cop and bad-cop†. Negotiation is an activity we may have to participate almost every day. Where there is a conflict, there will be a negotiation or compromise. However, we could use psychology to analysis people’s minds and behavior in negotiation to help us make a successful negotiation. Reference Hoffman, E.(Dec.2012). For dealing with the psychological factors that can block progress in negotiations. Retrieved from http://www.ciian.org/assets/forms/negotiation.pdf Homorism. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorism Gelafand, M.J., Fulmer, A. & Severance, L. The psychology of negotiation and mediation. Retrieved from http://www.bsos.umd.edu/psyc/gelfand/GelfandFulmerSeverence.pdf Olekalns, M. & Smith, P.L..(Jan,2012). Psychological aspects of negotiating strategies and processes. Melbourne Business School. Retrieved from http://works.bepress.com/mara_olekalns/20 Palmer, A. (2006). Psychology and Negotiation. Negotiation. Retrieved from http://www.negotiation.biz/psychology.htm The Psychology of Negotiation. Training, LLC. Retrieved from http://www.champtrainer.com/documents/the_psychology_of_negotiation.pdf

Rhetoric Essay Samples Reviews & Tips

Rhetoric Essay Samples Reviews & Tips The Battle Over Rhetoric Essay Samples and How to Win It It is crucial to keep in mind that you're not obligated to condemn or endorse the stance that the author has taken. Sherry also uses pathos by keeping the fashion of the reading simple and simple to follow. An author is attempting to evoke a sense of depression into the reader's mind. Any author strives to get the audience relate to what they're arguing. While it comes from somebody with authority, it's an anecdote from over a hundred decades ago and it is Nietzsche's opinion. The author asserts that the sort of relationship he has with nature is one which is innate. Since you may see, it isn't essential for the author to be a professional in the field you consider, but it's always fantastic to demonstrate he or she indeed has a say. This, nevertheless, isn't the author's desire. Up in Arms About Rhetoric Essay Samples? Bear in mind your rhetorical analysis doesn't need to be all positive or all negative. Rhetoric analysis is a method of understanding and inferring texts or some other literature work which might be in form of a film or video. A rhetorical analysis isn't a summary. It includes similar techniques. As an issue of fact, estimating appeals is critical to all rhetorical analysis essay examples. Don't be scared to cite references in case you have to do a little bit of research. It is crucial to dedicate a while to learn various strategies utilized by the modern-day writers and scholars. Rhetorical analysis example does not need a good deal of external research, but you may want to include sources that explain various procedures of persuasion to demonstrate the method by which the author of the works you're analyzing convinces their audience. If you're scared of the outcome, just bear in mind, you won't ever know the authentic result until you truly try it. To pass the program, you must scrutinize the subject and know about the rhetorical ways. Considering that the exam is implemented within a limited time period, you should structure the job. Any exam is a time-limited procedure, so if you really need to ace it, preparation is the secret to success. You've got to reveal the end result of the author's speech and its impact. Now, it's time to proceed to the thorough instruction of producing such paper. Movement in the video is also an essential technique. Knowing the context of this advertisement is essential to totally grasp how kairos played a pivotal part within this rhetorical circumstance. Understanding Rhetoric Essay Samples A rhetorical analysis essay is occasionally an extremely difficult endeavor for students to grasp. You need to make your thesis statement. Students are often scared of rhetorical analysis essays because they don't know how to write them. As an issue of fact, a rhetorical essay is really straightforward. In fact, a rhetorical essay is not as complicated than you believe. It is like an engine. Writing a rhetorical analysis essay for the very first time will probably seem to be an impossible endeavor. Bear in mind, your essay ought to be written logically and coherently. Introduce the article which you intend to analyze in your essay. This essay is broken up into three distinct pieces. Do not neglect to proofread your essay. Perfection includes practice. Just take a good look at the essay to see whether there are any grammar and spelling inconsistencies or, simple typos in that issue. This paper does the same mistake. Every paper needs to be formatted in compliance with the instructions of your professor. It's possible to always have your professor look at your paper and provide you advice. It's also feasible to bring a recommendation on how best to make a more powerful argument on a paper's topic. If you opt to analyze rhetorical appeals, then you might have to to organize every one of them into another body paragraph. Keep in mind your argument starts with the very first words of your paper.

Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa Essay - 1158 Words

Disease and Imperialism in Africa Diseases were prevalent in Africa during the time of European Imperialism. Disease affected both natives and European peoples in Africa. African diseases affected both natives and European explorers and soldiers as well as diseases brought by the Europeans that affected the Africans. Numerouks diseases impadcted the Europeans in Africa during the time of Imperialism. During the time of Imperialism many explorers and soldiers died of disease. During 1804-25 over 60 per cent of the men sent out by the Church Missionary Society died of disease (McLynn 228). Traveling to Africa was very dangerous. Before the 19th century, European soldiers in the tropical areas [in Africa] died†¦show more content†¦Although malaria was a major problem among Europeans, it was uncommon among Africans because they had developed an immunity to malaria (McLynn 228). In the 1850s, the primary breakthrough in the fight against malaria came with quinine (McLynn 232). The introduction of prophylactic quinine for malaria, [sic] suddenly reduced mortality by one-half (Smaldone). European medicine was brought over to help the explorers. Colonial medicine existed primarily to make the tropics fit for the white man to inhabit (Manderson 102). The hospitals were built in European settleme nts which were generally far away from the natives homes and to benefit the Europeans only (Manderson 103). The improvement of tropical medicine accelerated imperialism because the military and explorers were not being stopped by disease (Smaldone). Disease, native to Africa as well as those brought by Europeans, also took a large toll on the native peoples of Africa. Native diseases included malaria, sleeping sickness (trypunosomiasis), bilharzia, filariasis, hookworm infestation (ahkylostomiasis) and river blindness (onchocerciasis) (McLynn 227). It was sleeping sickness or tryanosomiasis that cause the greatest ravages among Africas indigenous population (McLynn 238). Sleeping sickness was highly contagious once contracted, was initiated by the parasitic trypanosomes conveyed in the bite of the tsetse fly (McLynn 239). InitialShow MoreRelated French and British Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa Essays1479 Words   |  6 PagesFrench and British Colonialism and Imperialism in Africa Africa is home to countless cultures that all have their own unique ideas and customs. During the past couple of centuries, these cultures were threatened to the point where they almost ceased to exist. The Berlin Conference was a very important occurrence in Africa and Europes history. 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